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History
Between 560 and 500 BC, the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East underwent great
political changes. Under Cyrus the Great Persia grew into the largest empire the
Near East had ever seen. Centered on the Persian homeland on the northeastern shore
of the Persian Gulf, it stretched from present-day Pakistan in the east to the Balkan
Peninsula in the west and from the Persian Gulf in the south to Central Asia in
the north.
The Iranian plateau was settled about 1500BC by Aryan tribes, the most important
of which were the Medes, who occupied the northwestern portion, and the Persians,
who emigrated from Parsua, a land west of Lake Urmia, into the southern region of
the plateau, which they named Parsamash or Parsumash. The first prominent leader
of the Persians was the warrior chief Hakhamanish, or Achaemenes, who lived about
681BC. The Persians were dominated by the Medes until the accession to the Persian
throne in 550 BC of Cyrus the Great.
Cyrus was born between 590 and 580 BC, either in Media or, more probably, in Persia,
the modern Fars province of Iran. The meaning of his name is in dispute, for it
is not known whether it was a personal name or a throne name given to him when he
became a ruler. It is noteworthy that after the Achaemenian Empire the name does
not appear again in sources relating to Iran, which may indicate some special sense
of the name.
The most important source for his life is the Greek historian Herodotus. The idealized
biography by Xenophon is a work for the edification of the Greeks concerning the
ideal ruler, rather than a historical treatise. It does, however, indicate the hig h
esteem in which Cyrus was held, not only by his own people, the Persians, but also
by the Greeks and others. Herodotus says that the Persians called Cyrus their father,
while later Achaemenian rulers were not so well regarded. The story of the childhood
of Cyrus, as told by Herodotus with echoes in Xenophon, may be called a Cyrus legend
since it obviously follows a pattern of folk beliefs about the almost superhuman
qualities of the founder of a dynasty. Similar beliefs also exist about the founders
of later dynasties throughout the history of Iran. According to the legend, Astyages,
the king of the Medes and overlord of the Persians, gave his daughter in marriage
to his vassal in Persis, a prince called Cambyses. From this marriage Cyrus was
born. Astyages, having had a dream that the baby would grow up to overthrow him,
ordered Cyrus slain. His chief adviser, however, instead gave the baby to a shepherd
to raise. When he was 10 years old, Cyrus, because of his outstanding qualities,
was discovered by Astyages, who, in spite of the dream, was persuaded to allow the
boy to live. Cyrus, when he reached manhood in Persis, revolted against his maternal
grandfather and overlord. Astyages marched against the rebel, but his army deserted
him and surrendered to Cyrus in 550 BC
Cyrus the Persian was the greatest conqueror in the history of the
Ancient near East. In 550 B.C., he ended Persian vassalage to the Medes by
Capturing Ecbatana and ousting the Median dynasty. The Medes readily accepted their
vigorous new ruler, who soon demonstrated that he deserved to be called "the Great."
When King Croesus of Lydia moved across the Hals River in 547 B.C. to pick up some
of the pieces of the Median empire, Cyrus defeated him and annexed Lydia, including
those Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor
that were under
the nominal control of Lydia. Sardis, the Lydian capital, was captured in 547 or
546, and the Ionian Greek cities on the Aegean Sea coast, as vassals of the Lydian
king, now became subject to Cyrus, and most of them submitted peacefully. Several
revolts of the Greek cities were later suppressed with severity.
Then he turned east, establishing his power as far as the frontier of India.
Next Cyrus turned to Babylonia, where the dissatisfaction of the people with the
ruler Nabonidus gave him a pretext for invading the lowlands. Babylonia (Babylonian Bâbili,"gate of God"; Old Persian
Babirush),Was the ancient country of Mesopotamia, known originally as Sumer and
later as Sumer and Akkad, lying between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, south of
modern Baghdâd, Iraq.
The Babylonian civilization, which endured from the
18th until the 6th century BC, was, like the Sumerian that preceded it, urban in
character, although based on agriculture rather than industry. The country consisted
of a dozen or so cities, surrounded by villages and hamlets. At the head of the
political structure was the king, a more or less absolute monarch who exercised
legislative and judicial as well as executive powers. Under him was a group of appointed
governors and administrators. Mayors and councils of city elders were in charge
of local administration.
The Babylonians modified and transformed their Sumerian
heritage in accordance with their own culture and ethos. The resulting way of life
proved to be so effective that it underwent relatively little change for some 1200
years. It exerted influence on all the neighboring countries, especially the kingdom
of Assyria, which adopted Babylonian culture almost in its entirety. Fortunately,
many written documents from this period have been excavated and made available to
scholars. One of the most important is the remarkable collection of laws often designated
as the Code of Hammurabi, which, together with other documents and letters belonging
to different periods, provides a comprehensive picture of Babylonian social structure
and economic organization.
The conquest was quick, for even the priests of Marduk, the national deity of the
great metropolis of Babylon, had become estranged from Nabonidus. In October 539
BC, the greatest city of the ancient world fell to the Persians and Cyrus established
the Persian Empire as the preeminent power of the world.
In the Bible (e.g., Ezra 1:1-4), Cyrus is famous for freeing the Jewish captives
in Babylonia and allowing them to return to their homeland. Cyrus was also tolerant
toward the Babylonians and others. He conciliated local populations by supporting
local customs and even sacrificing to local deities. The capture of Babylon delivered
not only Mesopotamia into the hands of Cyrus but also Syria and Palestine, which
had been conquered previously by the Babylonians. The ruler of Cilicia in Asia Minor
had become an ally of Cyrus when the latter marched against Croesus, and Cilicia
retained a special status in Cyrus' empire. Thus, it was by diplomacy as well as
force of arms that he established the largest empire known until his time.
After his conquest of Babylonia, he again turned to the east, and Herodotus tells
of his campaign against nomads living east of the Caspian Sea. According to the
Greek historian, Cyrus was at first successful in defeating the ruler of the nomads--called
the Massagetai--who was a woman, and captured her son. On the son's committing suicide
in captivity, his mother swore revenge, defeated, and killed Cyrus. Herodotus' story
may be apocryphal, but Cyrus' conquests in Central Asia were probably genuine, since
a city in farthest Sogdiana was called Cyreschata, or Cyropolis, by the Greeks,
which seems to prove the extent of his Eastern conquests.
Cyrus seems to have had several capitals. One was the city of Ecbatana, modern
Hamadan, former capital of the Medes, and another was a new capital of the empire,
Pasargadae, in Persis, said to be on the site where Cyrus had won the battle against
Astyages. The ruins today, though few, arouse admiration in the visitor. Cyrus also
kept Babylon as a winter capital.
Little is known of the family life of Cyrus. He had two sons, one of whom, Cambyses,
succeeded him; the other, Bardiya (Smerdis of the Greeks), was probably secretly
put to death by Cambyses after he became ruler. Cyrus had at least one daughter,
Atossa and possibly two others, but they played no role in history.
No Persian chauvinist, Cyrus was quick to learn from the conquered peoples. He not
only conciliated the Medes but also united them with the Persians in a kind of dual
monarchy of the Medes and Persians. Cyrus had to borrow the traditions of kingship
from the Medes, who had ruled an empire when the Persians were merely their vassals.
A Mede was probably made an adviser to the Achaemenian king, as a sort of chief
minister; on later reliefs at Persepolis, a capital of the Achaemenian kings from
the time of Darius, a Mede is frequently depicted together with the great king.
The Elamites, indigenous inhabitants of Persis, were also the teachers of the Persians
in many ways, as can be seen, for example, in the Elamite dress worn by Persians
and by Elamite objects carried by them on the stone reliefs at Persepolis. There
also seems to have been little innovation in government and rule, but rather a willingness
to borrow, combined with an ability to adapt what was borrowed to the new empire.
Cyrus was undoubtedly the guiding genius in the creation not only of a great empire
but in the formation of Achaemenian culture and civilization.
He must have been
a remarkable personality, and certainly, he was a remarkable king. He united under
his authority several Persian and Iranian groups who apparently had not been under
his father's control. He then initiated diplomatic exchanges with Nabonidus of Babylon
(556-539 BC), which justifiably worried Astyages. Eventually, he openly rebelled
against the Medes, who were beaten in battle when considerable numbers of Median
troops deserted to the Persian standard. Thus, in 550 BC, the Median Empire became
the first Persian Empire, and the Achaemenid kings appeared on the international
scene with a suddenness that must have frightened many.
It is a testimony to the capability of the founder of the Achaemenian Empire that
it continued to expand after his death and lasted for more than two centuries. However,
Cyrus was not only a great conqueror and administrator; he held a place in the minds
of the Persian people similar to that of Romulus and Remus in Rome or Moses for
the Israelites. His saga follows in many details the stories of hero and conquerors
from elsewhere in the ancient world. The manner in which the baby Cyrus was given
to a shepherd to raise is reminiscent of Moses in the bulrushes in Egypt, and the
overthrow of his tyrannical grandfather has echoes in other myths and legends. There
is no doubt that the Cyrus saga arose early among the Persians and was known to
the Greeks. The sentiments of esteem or even awe in which Persians held him were
transmitted to the Greeks, and it was no accident that Xenophon chose Cyrus to be
the model of a ruler for the lessons he wished to impart to his fellow Greeks.
In short, the figure of Cyrus has survived throughout
history as more than a great man who founded an empire. He became the epitome of
the great qualities expected of a ruler in antiquity, and he assumed heroic features
as a conqueror that was tolerant and magnanimous as well as brave and daring.
Cylinder
seal and inscription of Cyrus the Great from Babylon
I am Cyrus, king of the world, great king, mighty king, king of Babylon, king
of the land of Sumer and Akkad, king of the four quarters, son of Cambyses, great
king, king of Anshan, grandson of Cyrus, great king, king of Anshan, descendant
of Teispes, great king, king of Anshan, progeny of an unending royal line, whose
rule Bel and Nabu cherish, whose kingship they desire for their hearts' pleasures.
When I, well-disposed, entered Babylon, I established the seat of government in
the royal palace amidst jubilation and rejoicing. Marduk, the great God, caused
the big-hearted inhabitants of Babylon to...me. I sought daily to worship him. My
numerous troops moved about undisturbed in the midst of Babylon.
I did not allow any to terrorize the land of Sumer and Akkad. I kept in view the
needs of Babylon and all its sanctuaries to promote their well-being. The citizens
of Babylon... I lifted their unbecoming yoke. Their dilapidated dwellings I restored.I
put an end to their misfortunes.
At my deeds Marduk, the great Lord, rejoiced, and to me, Cyrus, the king who worshipped,
and to Cambyses, my son, the offspring of my loins, and to all my troops, he graciously
gave his blessing, and in good spirit is before him we/glorified/exceedingly his
high divinity....
Judgment about Cyrus the Great
AESCHYLUS:
He established peace among brother tribes … heaven
had not any rancor with him.
THE TORAH:
God says about Cyrus that he would reach all my happiness
to extremity
HERODOTUS:
His stance and respect is so high that they (Persian)
put no value to their children in compare with him.
PLATO:
During Cyrus leadership, his kingdom was developed
from all aspects and turned greater because people enjoyed freedom and there was
kindness and familiarity between them.
XENOPHPN:
Nobody like him was born who merits leadership
DIODORUS:
All say that Cyrus was not only brave in fighting
but his treatment with subordinates was moderate he was honest and humanitarian
GOBINO:
There never was any one like him in the world… He
was a Messiah … A man which heaven predestinated him to be superior to others.
FLOIGL:
When we remember the dark sad condition of the world
before Cyrus then the vast importance of this glorious great king would become more
obvious
G.RAWLINSON:
I know he only married one woman, princess Casandana
…when she died, her husband affected with deep sorrow.
E.MEYER:
Persian proudly mentioned him as father and Greeks
and other enemies bow for his greatness
SYKES:
Also we would boast that the first great Aryan man
which his life is clear in history, enjoyed such excellent and glorious qualities
W.DURANT:
Cyrus was one of the men, which seems to be created
for leadership.
R.GHIRSHMAN:
A new breeze was blown all over the world. He rescued
cities from falling victim and unfair murder. He extinguished fire of plunder cities
and made free the tribes from slavery.
A.R.SH.SHAHBAZI:
Cyrus makes hearts and cultures familiar to each other
and makes people of Iran, Greece, India, and Mesopotamia to be acquainted to each
other.
ABUL KALAM AZAD:
The
Qur'anic figure of Dhul-Qarnayn is Cyrus the Great.
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